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Immune checkpoint inhibitors ICIs reinvigorate anti-tumor immune responses by disrupting co-inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules such as programmed cell death 1 PD-1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 CTLA Although ICIs have had unprecedented success and have become the standard of care for many cancers, they are often accompanied by off-target inflammation that can occur in any organ system.
Although irAEs are common, the detailed molecular and immune mechanisms underlying their development are still elusive. To further our understanding of irAEs and develop effective treatment options, there is pressing need for preclinical models recapitulating the clinical settings. In this review, we describe current preclinical models and immune implications of ICI-induced skin toxicities, colitis, neurological and endocrine toxicities, pneumonitis, arthritis, and myocarditis along with their management.
Cancer patients are conventionally treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery. These conventional treatment modalities are often combined in order to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes; however, they are ineffective in some aggressive and metastatic settings. Recently, immunotherapy has revolutionized the field of medical oncology, which has led to significantly improved patient survival compared to conventional cancer therapies.
Among several types of immunotherapies available e. Durable and complete responses can be observed in patients with advanced malignancies, including non-small cell lung cancer NSCLC 1 , melanoma 2 , colorectal cancer 3 , and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma 4. These side effects frequently result in interruptions of immunotherapy treatment and require immunosuppressants such as corticosteroids, which interfere with anti-tumor responses.
