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Sex determination is a central process for sexual reproduction and is often regulated by a sex determinant encoded on a sex chromosome. Rules that govern the evolution of sex chromosomes via specialization and degeneration following the evolution of a sex determinant have been well studied in diploid organisms.
However, distinct predictions apply to sex chromosomes in organisms where sex is determined in the haploid phase of the life cycle: both sex chromosomes, female U and male V, are expected to maintain their gene functions, even though both are non-recombining. Here, we provide evidence that sex chromosomes diverged early during the evolution of haploid liverworts and identify the sex determinant on the Marchantia polymorpha U chromosome.
Phylogenetic analyses of Feminizer and other sex chromosome genes indicate dimorphic sex chromosomes had already been established mya in the ancestral liverwort. Feminizer also plays a role in reproductive induction that is shared with its gametolog on the V chromosome, suggesting an ancestral function, distinct from sex determination, was retained by the gametologs.
This implies ancestral functions can be preserved after the acquisition of a sex determination mechanism during the evolution of a dominant haploid sex chromosome system. Keywords: Marchantia polymorpha; feminizer; gametolog; haploid; reproduction; sex chromosome; sex chromosome evolution; sex differentiation; sex-determining gene. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.