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Please contact mpub-help umich. For more information, read Michigan Publishing's access and usage policy. In January over 30, Torghud households left the Volga in order to make their new home in Zungharia.
When they reached Zungharia by July, however, they had been greatly weakened by Kazakh and Kirghiz raids and forced to submit to Qing rule. In addition to providing a case study, this paper has two larger aims. First, I will highlight the historical value of the Torghud slave narratives from October to September that survive in Manchu-language Qing palace memorials. Second, using these slave narratives, I will argue that the Torghud experiences of bondage and freedom highlight the boundaries of subjecthood that existed in Qing Xinjiang and its Central Asian frontier.
On January 5, , 30, Torghud households under Ubashi r. This was a collective decision made by Ubashi and other Torghud leaders after three decades of intensifying Russian colonization and Russo-Torghud conflicts. By , the Torghud pastures had been surrounded by the Russian defensive lines, which severely curtailed their freedom of movement, and the growing Russian demand for military service and other duties put great pressure on Torghud society.
The advocates of the exodus, especially the Zunghar refugees driven out of their former home by the Qing army in the s, had claimed that they could reclaim Zungharia and gain free pastures once again. Contrary to their expectations, the Torghuds were not able to establish an independent regime in Zungharia. First, the journey from the Volga to Zungharia was an arduous one. Torghud passage through the Kazakh domains was especially hazardous, as the Kazakhs launched merciless slave raids against the Torghuds.